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people at higher risk of deficiency include older adults, those with gastrointestinal issues that impair absorption, people whove had gastric surgery, long-term strict vegans who do not supplement, and those on certain acid-reducing medicines

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For gene expression analysis, TaqMan Gene Expression Assays (Applied Biosystems, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Massachusetts, USA) were used (Table 1, additional material)

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Recovery of PAA as percentage PAGL or PAG was calculated from the mean of total urine PAGL and PAG excreted (micromoles) divided by the mean total administered SPA (micromoles)